But the minority language is clearly dominant, the second generation is bilingual and either of the two languages might be strongest, the third generation is bilingual with the majority language dominating and the fourth generation only has command of the majority language. High emphasis on individual achievement. Thank you…. Total views 26, On Slideshare 0. From embeds 0. Number of embeds 9. Downloads Shares 0. Comments 0. Likes You just clipped your first slide!
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Visibility Others can see my Clipboard. Cancel Save. Exclusive 60 day trial to the world's largest digital library. The community sees no reason to take active steps to maintain their ethnic language. At first it appears very important to learn the majority language in order to achieve social and economic success.
Yet, without conscious maintenance it can and usually does disappear in as few as three generations. The social and economic goals of individuals in a community are very important in accounting for the speed of shift. Demographic factors are also relevant in accounting for the speed of language shift. Resistance to language shift tends to last longer in rural than in urban areas. Shift tends to occur faster in some groups than in others.
The size of the group is sometimes a critical factor. Intermarriage between groups can accelerate language shift. Unless multilingualism is normal in a community, one language tends to predominate in the home. Language shift tends to be slower among communities where the minority language is highly valued.
The status of a language internationally can contribute to these positive attitudes. Another factor which may contribute to language maintenance for those who emigrate is the degree and frequency of contact with the homeland. A regular stream of new migrants or even visitors will keep the need for using the language alive.
Although the pressures to shift are strong, members of a minority community can take active steps to protect its language. Institutional support generally makes the difference between success and failure in maintaining a minority group language.
Education, law and administration, religion and the media are crucial domains from this point of view. These social psychologists suggest that we can predict the likelihood that a language will be maintained by measuring its ethnolinguistic vitality. The concept of. Examining linguistic landscapes means looking at public texts in their physical and social context. Public or official bilingual or multilingual signs can be interpreted in many different ways.
During the accomplishment of their intellectual, bilinguals know how to flexibly exploit their both languages. They use their languages spontaneously and sensibly in a variety of ways and for many different purposes. Even young children know surely how to use the two languages in different places, with different people, and for different purposes. Actually, bilinguals naturally know how to purposefully switch back and forth between the two languages in the course of a single activity or interaction Collier, Educational advantages: Research shows that there are important educational advantages in being bilingual particularly when bilingual learners also become biliterate, or literate in two languages.
The more your bilingual learners can use both their languages in curriculum learning, the better. The two languages support each other and are interdependent, and bilingual speakers have some cognitive advantages over those who know only one language Cummins, Students who learn English and continue to develop their native language have higher academic achievement in later years than do students who learn English at the expense of their first language.
This maybe right because those who still link with their mother tongue community, have strong motivation, and desire of learning, and doing something to help their community to develop and progress Cummins et al, Children's knowledge and skills transfer across languages from the mother tongue they have learned in the home to the school language. From the point of view of children's development of concepts and thinking skills, the two languages are interdependent.
Transfer across languages can be two-way: when the mother tongue is promoted in school e. In short, both languages nurture each other when the educational environment permits children access to both languages Collier, ; Cummins, ; Baker, Practically, Bilingual children perform better in school when the school effectively provides teaching-learning the mother tongue and, where appropriate, develops literacy in that language.
By contrast, when children are encouraged to decline their mother tongue and, consequently, its development disintegrates, their personal and conceptual foundation for learning is impaired Baker, ; Cummins, ; Skutnabb-Kangas, ; The, Actually, when bilinguals are learning and reach fluency in second or other languages, the knowledge and skills can easily transfer across languages.
Economic benefits and national security: Better employment and business opportunities in this country and overseas are available for individuals and units who are fluent in English and another language. There are advantages of being bilingual or multilingual. If someone wants to get a better lifestyle and be successful in the new place, they should communicate and speak the language. They have more opportunities to get a better job and to get a competitive salary. In the world trade, the endlessly continued rise in trade, capital flows and personal migration, at higher rates than ever, will require increasing human resources devoted to the practice of foreign languages and the study of foreign cultures Jorge, et al, In national and global level, maintenance of bilingualism or minority languages is critical important as we look as how the US treated with language and national security issue.
In January , President Bush announced the National Security Language Initiative NSLI , an inter-agency effort coordinated by the White House to dramatically increase the number of Americans learning, speaking, and teaching critical need foreign languages minority languages in the United States and other countries. These skills are also fundamental to the economic competitiveness and security interests of the nation.
The Secretaries of State, Education, and Defense and the Director of National Intelligence launched this comprehensive and coordinated national initiative with new programs and resources to expand U.
Department of Education, Why it is only promoting understanding, respect for some critical need foreign languages, in critical world region, at a critical time, while every single language and culture deserves to be understood and respected? Actually, for the sake of economic competitiveness and security of the U.
It enables the U. Conclusion 5. Only therectical importance? To maintain minority languages is very important as those above reasons and the central role of languages.
It is crucial important in this era of information technology and high tech which may be very helpful to maintain the minority languages, but actually make them disappear quicker. However, It does not make sence if what we know and what we try to research do not help to make any slowdown the death rate of minority languages. Yes, we, linguists, can reconstruct a few extinct languages; but finally, what we have then is not much more than words on paper, and in museum. We cannot bring back from the dead a society that spoke the language, or the heritage and culture behind it.
Once a language is gone, it's gone forever. The most decisive factor in the future of these endangered languages is the will and the attitude of the speech communities. Without the interest of the speech community in revitalization, any effort to promote institutional protection would be senseless and insignificant Derhemi, It seems only the speakers of the minority languages can say whether the maintenance of their languages is important!!!
Who have to do, what can be done? The main players in the narrative need to understand this importance, know the stage their language is in, share practical experience both failures and successes , and know what need to do to maintain their language step by step. Reforming their positive language attitude, promotion language use, reserving domains for minority language use among native speakers, are necessary for revival the language together with relavant language policy and language planning in terms of status, acquisition and corpus Baker, Theory must match with pratice It is easy to say not easy to do whatever even only to show that their minority languages are important.
We never see the minority language appear equitably with dominant language in schools, mass-media, public places, on the Internet. We never look for community leaders, and never train them how their language is important and need to be promoted, and revitalized. The United States of America is the model of the world in its democratic oreintation, and in managing the nation.
Though many studies on bilingual education and its important have been conducted, not many projects have been implimented. Rarely or no chance is it to get scholarship or fund available for students and teachers seeking for higher education in bilingual fields.
Take Challenge or it is too late The huge challenge to the process of maintaining minority languages is that most of them, the main players in the narrative, are usually not aware of their losing language sistuation and lack of condition to start a reverse movement of language shift. WHO can make them think about the important of their language and change their language attitute towards their language, while they are truggeling with their hunger?
WHO can find out their social leaders, and activists and train them to be language revival leaders? It seems much work need to be done to cure these language than what human being have done. The initial steps of action need to be done rather than huge research and declarations. The way we have acted sofar to say that we, human beings, want to promote only global language, and we will pay for this unforeseen deviation as we are paid for our past mistakes. References Baker, C.
Encyclopedia of bilingualism and bilingual education. Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Baker, C. A parents' and teachers' guide to bilingualism. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters. Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Hornberger Ed. Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. New York: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Knowledge about bilingualism and multilingualism.
Bokhorst-Heng, W. Cat, B. Cummins, J. Language, power, and pedagogy. Bilingual children in the crossfire. Crawford, J. Seven hypotheses on language loss causes and cures. Derhemi, E. Protecting endangered minority languages: Sociolinguistic perspectives — Thematic introduction. Guchteneire, M. Koenig, E. Discovery News.
All educators must realize that, although they alone cannot be responsible for the intergenerational transmission of a language, they can do much to encourage positive attitudes towards it. To counteract the extinction of home languages, school boards and school administrators need to do much more than develop native language programs and hire qualified, literate teachers to implement them, for these teachers are few in number and control only a small portion of each student's time.
Native language and culture offerings tend to be isolated from the rest of the curriculum, from subjects taught in English, and from the majority of teachers and pupils. This amounts to a form of segregation. What the entire educational establishment must do, instead, is to actively and systematically promote linguistic diversity rather than conformity.
This would be feasible if it was required that all English-speaking teachers become fluent in another language. If they do, they will gain very rewarding experiences and personal growth. However, let us be realistic; we are talking about attitudes, not about some unreasonable standard of proficiency.
Sustained action Educators can play a significant role not only in promoting positive attitudes towards the local native language but in creating opportunities for people to use it.
School personnel and community members together can create and support participation in such initiatives. Many years ago I was invited to the traditional Crow Arrow Games by some friends from Lodge Grass, and it was an unforgettable experience. The spectators sat around the huge playing field, each family gathered under an awning or a big umbrella, enjoying refreshments and conversation.
The announcements and the talk were all in Crow, but from time to time someone would take me aside and whisper a quick English summary of what was being said. This kind of event included adults as well as children, and this is where a lot of language learning and practice was taking place. The school provided additional instruction, including reading and writing from an impressive collection of Crow language materials.
Many schools have similar programs for Native students, but the Arrow Games are a unique and exemplary model of community involvement. It is important to keep in mind that if a language is learned as an academic subject, it may enjoy high prestige and yet never be used for meaningful communication in authentic social interactions.
This is what happened when I was taught Latin in Italy, where I obtained most of my education. I began to study Latin in a public school when I was ten and continued until the end of college. In class we read the classics as well as later documents by medieval scholars, we did a lot of translation and grammar exercises, and eventually we wrote compositions. We hardly ever used the language orally in class, but outside of school we heard it in church, for this was before the Vatican allowed the use of modern languages in Catholic services.
What we heard during Mass and other ceremonies was entirely formulaic and ritualistic, either read aloud or recited from memory. We learned what the holy texts meant during religious instruction classes, but the discussion was conducted in Italian, not in Latin. The only times I heard Latin used for communication were when priests from different countries used it with each other when they had no other common language. For us students, the language was a reminder that we were descended from the Romans, who had once conquered the world.
Our ability to decipher inscriptions in churches, monuments, and graveyards identified us as members of the educated class, so that the language had prestige and was greatly valued, but everyone knew that it was dead.
To keep native languages alive, it is not enough to value them; it is essential to use them. If their use is declining, it is necessary to identify special occasions and designate special times and places where it makes sense not to use English. The community must provide direction, but unless the school system participates in the effort, it may lack credibility in the eyes of today's sophisticated youth. In addition, all teachers should develop an integrated approach to language across the curriculum, building on what the learners bring to the classroom from their out-of-school experiences and from other classes, especially those on Native language and culture.
Teachers can also identify and collect supplementary materials that highlight diversity as a desirable worldwide phenomenon. This is particularly important in the case of schools located in isolated areas. Although technology and the media bring the outside world into their home, students may not pay attention to what does not relate directly to their own interests, and the teachers must act as mediators and interpreters.
One source of such materials is the Curriculum Resource Program available from the editors of Cultural Survival 1. The program covers a wide range of themes, from contemporary issues in Native North America to international case-specific studies of ethnic conflict. Resource packets for teachers include bibliographies, videos, lists of speakers and artisans, and suggestions for classroom activities and further learning. Teachers need some guidance and administrative support about how to implement the changes they may be willing to try, but, as competent professionals, they should also assume responsibility for their own informed decisions.
The enormous differences in contexts, cultures, backgrounds, ages, and achievement levels that exist in every classroom call for flexibility, adaptability, and creativity, rather than passive submission to a syllabus developed and imposed by someone else.
The higher principle one can invoke in support of this pedagogy is a humanistic respect for teachers as well as learners. To encourage these initiatives so that they become more than lip-service, school districts could engage in action research projects, possibly in collaboration with a college or university that would offer them academic credit. The goal of action research is the development of a better understanding of a local issue in order to bring about improvement. The participants research their own classroom, department, program, school system, or community, not someone else's, and can do so in a fairly informal, relaxed, and natural way.
The projects are best conducted as cooperative efforts involving colleagues, students, staff, parents, and other appropriate collaborators. One possible project could be aimed at increasing the integration of traditional and academic knowledge into thematic units and should be a collaborative effort between Native instructors and other teachers.
Another project could explore whether learning about the advantages of bilingualism leads to increased native language use among the people who receive that information. To begin an action research project, teachers could identify a component of their practice where the outcomes are somewhat unexpected or not in line with stated goals.
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